What is Islamic Mysticism?
Islamic mysticism, known in Arabic as tasawwuf (literally, “to dress in wool”), is a mystical Islamic belief and practice in which Muslims seek to find the truth of divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God, consisting of a variety of mystical paths designed to ascertain the nature of humanity and of God and to facilitate the experience of the presence of divine love and wisdom in the world. Practitioners of Sufism are referred to as “Sufis” and historically typically belonged to “orders” known as tariqa—congregations formed around a grand wali (saint) who would be the last in a chain of successive teachers linking back to Muhammad, with the goal of undergoing tazkiyah (self-purification) and the hope of reaching the spiritual station of ihsan. While Islamic mysticism is most commonly associated with Sufism, its works cover the whole gamut of Islamic sciences, not least Qur’an commentary, Hadith (sayings of Muhammad), jurisprudence, principles of jurisprudence, theology, philosophy, and mysticism.
Origins & Lineage
Sufism emerged early on in Islamic history, partly as a reaction against the expansion of the early Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) and mainly under the tutelage of Hasan al-Basri. This mystic tradition within Islam developed in several stages of growth, emerging first in the form of early asceticism, based on the teachings of Hasan al-Basri, before entering the second stage of more classical mysticism of divine love, as promoted by al-Ghazali and Attar of Nishapur, and finally emerging in the institutionalized form of today’s network of fraternal Sufi orders, based on Sufis such as Rumi and Yunus Emre. The first stage of Sufism appeared in pious circles as a reaction against the worldliness of the early Umayyad period (661–749), and the introduction of the element of love, which changed asceticism into mysticism, is ascribed to Rābiʿah al-ʿAdawīyah (died 801), a woman from Basra who first formulated the Sufi ideal of a love of Allah (God) that was disinterested, without hope for paradise and without fear of hell.
Key figures who shaped Islamic mysticism include Al-Ghazali (1058–1111), an Islamic theologian, jurist, philosopher, cosmologist, psychologist and Sufi mystic of Persian origin who remains one of the most celebrated scholars in the history of Sunni Islamic thought. Ghazali contributed significantly to the development of a systematic view of Sufism and its integration and acceptance in mainstream Islam. Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi (1165–1240), known as al-Sheikh al-Akbar (“The Greatest Master”), was born in Murcia, in Islamic Spain, and spent his life traveling across the Muslim world from Andalusia to North Africa, Mecca, Anatolia, and finally Damascus, producing a vast corpus of writings that fundamentally reshaped Sufi metaphysics. Rūmī (c. 1207–1273) was the greatest Sufi mystic and poet in the Persian language, famous for his lyrics and for his didactic epic Mas̄navī-yi Maʿnavī (“Spiritual Couplets”), which widely influenced mystical thought and literature throughout the Muslim world.
The transition from individual mystical practice to organized communities occurred gradually between the 9th and 12th centuries CE, with spiritual masters beginning to gather disciples around them, teaching specific methods of spiritual purification and mystical awareness; by the 12th century CE, these informal spiritual communities evolved into more structured organizations with distinct identities, practices, and lineages, marking the birth of the tariqa system as we understand it today.
How It’s Practiced
Islamic mysticism is practiced primarily through participation in a tariqa (spiritual order) under the guidance of a shaykh (spiritual master). The central practice is dhikr, a remembering of Allah, which involves recitation of devotional Islamic prayer. The Naqshbandi order highlights strict observance of the Sharia and introduces silent inward dhikr, distinguishing it from vocal chanting practices prevalent in other Sufi tariqas. Particular orders are known for distinctive practices, such as the loud dhikr recitation of the Rifaʿiyya, in contrast to the silent dhikr favored by the Naqshbandiyya.
One of the most recognizable practices is whirling, performed by the “whirling dervishes” of the Mevlevi Order due to their famous practice of whirling while performing dhikr (remembrance of God). The Mevlevi Order is a Sufi order that originated in Konya, Turkey and which was founded by the followers of Jalaluddin Muhammad Balkhi Rumi, a 13th-century Persian poet, Sufi mystic, and Islamic theologian. The whirling dance is part of a formal ceremony known as the sama, and the Sama is only one of many Sufi ceremonies performed to attain religious ecstasy (jadhb or fana).
Major Sufi orders operating today include the Naqshbandiyya, Qadiriyya, Shadhiliyya, and Tijaniyya, which maintain branches across multiple continents, adapting their practices to diverse cultural contexts while maintaining core spiritual methodologies. Some of the Sufi orders, such as the Qadiriyya (named after ʿAbd al-Qadir al-Jilani, d. 1166), are spread throughout Islamic lands from North Africa to Southeast Asia, while others are more regional in scope, like the Shadhiliyya in North Africa (named after Abu ʾl-Hasan al-Shadhili, d. 1258), or the Chishtiyya in South Asia (named after Muʿin al-Din Chishti, d. 1236).
Islamic Mysticism Today
After centuries as the most important ascetic-mystical strand of Islam, Sufism saw a sharp decline in the twentieth century, only to experience a stunning revival in recent decades. In the contemporary period, Sufi orders maintain significant global presence through complex networks that connect traditional centers with diaspora communities and new converts. These digital connections supplement rather than replace traditional forms of in-person transmission, creating multi-layered networks that combine physical travel with virtual communication.
Contemporary seekers encounter Islamic mysticism through various avenues: formal initiation into tariqas with living teachers, retreat centers offering Sufi practices, translations of classical Sufi poetry and texts (especially Rumi), university courses on Islamic spirituality, and online communities. Figures such as Shaykh Nazim Adil al-Qubrusi al-Haqqani have continued the Naqshbandi tradition, establishing organizations like the Naqshbandi Haqqani Sufi Order under the guidance of leaders such as Shaykh Hisham Kabbani, working to spread Sufi teachings about “the brotherhood of mankind and the Unity of belief in God that is present in all religions and spiritual paths”.
Sufi orders have been illegal in Turkey since the 1920s, when Mustafa Kemal Ataturk secularized the Turkish state, and the public performance of Sufi rituals such as the “whirling dervish” dance of the Mevleviyya is tolerated only as a cultural activity, which is exported abroad through touring companies and sound recordings. Contemporary fundamentalist movements attack Sufism with virulence, and reformers frequently denounce pilgrimage to Sufi tombs as an idolatry that treats humans on the level of God, rejecting the notion that saints are able to intercede with God on behalf of ordinary believers.
Common Misconceptions
Islamic mysticism is not a separate sect of Islam. Sufism is not deemed a sect of Islam, but is instead an esoteric and spiritual outlook of the world; thus, one can be Sunni and Sufi, Shia and Sufi, and so on. It is not inherently heterodox or un-Islamic, despite controversies. The first traces of Sufism emerged from overwhelming consciousness of sin combined with dread of Judgment Day, yet the Sufis themselves argue against such origins and claim that Sufism originated with the Prophet Muhammad. The exact origin of Sufism is disputed; some sources state that Sufism is the inner dimensions of the teachings of Muhammad whereas others say that Sufism emerged during the Islamic Golden Age from about the eighth to tenth centuries.
While whirling dervishes have become iconic, they represent only one order’s practice (the Mevlevi), not all Islamic mysticism. The “ecstatic trances” often described by outsiders are more accurately understood as states of heightened spiritual awareness and presence. The “golden age” view of Sufism is shared by modern Muslim reformists and fundamentalists who are extremely critical of modern and contemporary Sufism, although they may concede that long-dead Sufi masters of the past were pious Muslims; however, neither of these ideological views does justice to the self-conscious efforts of later Sufi teachers to give life to Sufi teachings in their own time.
How to Begin
Those interested in Islamic mysticism should begin with reading rather than immediately seeking initiation. Start with translations of Rumi’s Masnavi or Divan, Ibn Arabi’s works (such as Fusus al-Hikam or The Meccan Openings), or al-Ghazali’s spiritual writings. Martin Lings’s What is Sufism? and Annemarie Schimmel’s Mystical Dimensions of Islam provide scholarly overviews. Online resources from established orders like the Naqshbandi, Qadiri, or Shadhili traditions offer introductory materials.
If drawn to formal practice, seek out a legitimate tariqa with a living shaykh who maintains proper lineage (silsilah) back to the Prophet Muhammad. Attend dhikr gatherings as a visitor if permitted. Understand that Islamic mysticism requires commitment to Islamic practice more broadly—the five daily prayers, Qur’an study, and ethical conduct. Be wary of self-proclaimed teachers without verifiable lineage or those who separate Sufi practice from Islamic orthodoxy. Many legitimate orders welcome sincere seekers regardless of prior Islamic knowledge, offering gradual instruction in both outer and inner dimensions of the tradition.